The General History of the Society of Mary, volume 2, is 757 pages.
During Simler’s long tenure (1876-1905), the Society of Mary received Vatican approval of its Constitutions; expanded to several countries, including Canada, Japan, Spain, Italy, Tunisia, and Mexico; increased from approximately 1,200 to 2,000 members; and attained its full development as an institution, encompassing all aspects of its administration, finances, formation programs, community expansion, and educational style. In fact, the survival of the Society of Mary depended on its expansion into an international religious congregation after its expulsion from France in 1903.
However, “the real significance of Father Simler’s years of leadership did not principally consist in increasing the number of work and members, as well as improving the internal organization of the Marianist social body to make its educational mission more effective. . . . Simler understood his generalate as a mission to form his religious in the interior spirit and in the spiritual identity of the Marianist religious state conceived by Father Chaminade. In this sense, Father Simler was recognized by the members of the Society of Mary as a spiritual master and ‘second founder.’”[1]
The spiritual and intellectual wisdom of this “second founder” is evident in the 94 circulars he wrote, excerpts of which pepper the historical and theological analysis beautifully captured by Father Gascón. Gascón, a preeminent Marianist historian, also provides the reader with the economic, political, ecclesial, educational, and sociological backdrop at the time of the Society’s expansion during the dawn of the Industrial Revolution.
[1] Antonio Gascón Aranda, SM, The General History of the Society of Mary, vol. 2. Generalate of Father Joseph Simler: An International Congregation of Pontifical Right (1873-1905) (Dayton, OH: NACMS, 2025), pp. xv-xvi.
3
International Congregation of Pontifical Rank
"When he [Father Simler] assumed office, the Society had about 30 houses outside of France, of which three were in Switzerland, one in Belgium, one in Germany, two in Austria, and 24 in America. During the course of his generalate, and especially from 1886 onward, the Society expanded in all these various countries, except in Germany. . . . It penetrated, besides, into Spain, Italy, and Canada. It eventually was implanted into Africa through Tripoli and Tunisia, into Asia through Japan, and into Oceania through the Hawaiian Islands. Thus,
according to an expression and a wish of the Good Father, the Society took on “a more universal character, and by that fact, a more Catholic one.” In 1903, it had more than 80 houses across the world outside of France."319
In fact, in the 1880s, the Society of Mary underwent a tremendous territorial expansion into non-European territories, with foundations in countries far beyond the borders of France and the United States. In 1880, a community was founded in Canada; in Tripoli, Libya, in 1881; in Sfax (Tunisia) the following year; in 1883, the Province of America accepted the direction of two schools in the cities of Honolulu and Wailuku on the Hawaiian Islands; four years later, in 1887, there were foundations in Japan, Rome (Italy), and San Sebastián (Spain). This last city came after a previous attempt in Oost, Holland, failed. Later, there were other foundations: in 1899 in Aleppo (Syria) and Ginevich (Luxembourg). After the teaching congregations were expelled from France, the General Administration moved its headquarters to Nivelles (Belgium), and the Marianist seminary at Antony relocated its community of theologians and formators to Fribourg (Switzerland). In 1903, the Marianists were established in far-off China, and the expulsion from France led to a foundation in Durango (Mexico) in 1904.
The motives and circumstances around each of these foundations responded to various causes, all of which were interrelated: the initial motive was the need to find places to send religious who had been expelled from
the municipal schools in France because of the Goblet Law of October 30, 1886. But the possibility of sending religious to North Africa, the Hawaiian Islands, Japan, and China found support in the colonial expansion of the European powers and the United States. Another motive was the fear of being definitively expelled from France, which would include preparing possible refuges, if a dramatic occasion forced the Marianists to abandon the country. This fear was the case with the foundation in Spain, but the Spanish case was also favored by the need to respond to an influx of vocations from young Spanish men and the need to have houses on the Spanish side of the Pyrenees so that Marianists coming from France could be dispensed from their military obligations. Exchanging military service for a teaching mission was certainly a motive for taking direction of the schools in French colonial territories in North Africa and Syria, once the expulsion from municipal schools in France made it impossible to exchange military service for ten years of teaching in official schools. In Rome, Collegio Santa Maria was opened to comply with Leo XIII’s policy of the centralization of religious congregations, but it also created a residence for Marianist priests obtaining academic degrees from pontifical universities and Roman institutes. The foundation in Japan was a response to a request from the priests of the Society of Foreign Missionaries of Paris, who wanted French religious teachers to counteract the influence of the many Protestant mission schools, English and American, which had a strong influence on the religion of Japanese people who wanted to adopt Western culture. Having establishments in Japan that could gather religious expelled from the public schools in France, together with the will to increase the influence of French culture in Japan, also entered into the motives for sending a community there. But above all, there was the missionary sentiment of bringing Catholicism to new territories that had opened up economic and political relations with Europe and the United States. The direction of a mission school in China was accepted for similar reasons; this time, it was under the colonial influence of Germany. The Society of Mary had hoped the German government would allow it to open a house of formation in Alsace or Germany. Helping to generate this missionary enthusiasm was the fact that, at this time, there existed in the Society of Mary an abundance of vocations in France and the United States—a great workforce made up of French religious expelled from municipal schools—and a healthy economic situation that was not affected by the secularizing laws of the Third Republic (more interested in taking over all official schools for the republicanization of French society than in the harassment and extinction of the congregations). Finally, international expansion and missionary enthusiasm of religious and superiors happened when the Society of Mary was reaching institutional maturity with the new Constitutions of 1891. The expulsion of French religious from municipal primary schools could have been the cause of a financial disaster and a more significant internal crisis than the one that occurred during the debate about mixed composition. In fact, it was the opportunity for greater territorial expansion for the Society and the moral and religious elevation of its members, nourished by this missionary spirit.
Finally, it should be stressed that the Society’s expansion into non-Western territories took place in the context of the expansion of missions throughout the Catholic Church, caused not only by the phenomenon of colonialism but also by a true missionary spirit that existed in the numerous lay associations and religious institutes founded at that time for missions in faraway territories, such as Africa, Asia, and Oceania. The Society of Mary, which considers itself a missionary congregation, naturally participated in this spirit of enthusiasm for missions that enlivened the entire Catholic Church in the last third of the nineteenth century.
3
International Congregation of Pontifical Rank
"When he [Father Simler] assumed office, the Society had about 30 houses outside of France, of which three were in Switzerland, one in Belgium, one in Germany, two in Austria, and 24 in America. During the course of his generalate, and especially from 1886 onward, the Society expanded in all these various countries, except in Germany. . . . It penetrated, besides, into Spain, Italy, and Canada. It eventually was implanted into Africa through Tripoli and Tunisia, into Asia through Japan, and into Oceania through the Hawaiian Islands. Thus,
according to an expression and a wish of the Good Father, the Society took on “a more universal character, and by that fact, a more Catholic one.” In 1903, it had more than 80 houses across the world outside of France."319
In fact, in the 1880s, the Society of Mary underwent a tremendous territorial expansion into non-European territories, with foundations in countries far beyond the borders of France and the United States. In 1880, a community was founded in Canada; in Tripoli, Libya, in 1881; in Sfax (Tunisia) the following year; in 1883, the Province of America accepted the direction of two schools in the cities of Honolulu and Wailuku on the Hawaiian Islands; four years later, in 1887, there were foundations in Japan, Rome (Italy), and San Sebastián (Spain). This last city came after a previous attempt in Oost, Holland, failed. Later, there were other foundations: in 1899 in Aleppo (Syria) and Ginevich (Luxembourg). After the teaching congregations were expelled from France, the General Administration moved its headquarters to Nivelles (Belgium), and the Marianist seminary at Antony relocated its community of theologians and formators to Fribourg (Switzerland). In 1903, the Marianists were established in far-off China, and the expulsion from France led to a foundation in Durango (Mexico) in 1904.
The motives and circumstances around each of these foundations responded to various causes, all of which were interrelated: the initial motive was the need to find places to send religious who had been expelled from
the municipal schools in France because of the Goblet Law of October 30, 1886. But the possibility of sending religious to North Africa, the Hawaiian Islands, Japan, and China found support in the colonial expansion of the European powers and the United States. Another motive was the fear of being definitively expelled from France, which would include preparing possible refuges, if a dramatic occasion forced the Marianists to abandon the country. This fear was the case with the foundation in Spain, but the Spanish case was also favored by the need to respond to an influx of vocations from young Spanish men and the need to have houses on the Spanish side of the Pyrenees so that Marianists coming from France could be dispensed from their military obligations. Exchanging military service for a teaching mission was certainly a motive for taking direction of the schools in French colonial territories in North Africa and Syria, once the expulsion from municipal schools in France made it impossible to exchange military service for ten years of teaching in official schools. In Rome, Collegio Santa Maria was opened to comply with Leo XIII’s policy of the centralization of religious congregations, but it also created a residence for Marianist priests obtaining academic degrees from pontifical universities and Roman institutes. The foundation in Japan was a response to a request from the priests of the Society of Foreign Missionaries of Paris, who wanted French religious teachers to counteract the influence of the many Protestant mission schools, English and American, which had a strong influence on the religion of Japanese people who wanted to adopt Western culture. Having establishments in Japan that could gather religious expelled from the public schools in France, together with the will to increase the influence of French culture in Japan, also entered into the motives for sending a community there. But above all, there was the missionary sentiment of bringing Catholicism to new territories that had opened up economic and political relations with Europe and the United States. The direction of a mission school in China was accepted for similar reasons; this time, it was under the colonial influence of Germany. The Society of Mary had hoped the German government would allow it to open a house of formation in Alsace or Germany. Helping to generate this missionary enthusiasm was the fact that, at this time, there existed in the Society of Mary an abundance of vocations in France and the United States—a great workforce made up of French religious expelled from municipal schools—and a healthy economic situation that was not affected by the secularizing laws of the Third Republic (more interested in taking over all official schools for the republicanization of French society than in the harassment and extinction of the congregations). Finally, international expansion and missionary enthusiasm of religious and superiors happened when the Society of Mary was reaching institutional maturity with the new Constitutions of 1891. The expulsion of French religious from municipal primary schools could have been the cause of a financial disaster and a more significant internal crisis than the one that occurred during the debate about mixed composition. In fact, it was the opportunity for greater territorial expansion for the Society and the moral and religious elevation of its members, nourished by this missionary spirit.
Finally, it should be stressed that the Society’s expansion into non-Western territories took place in the context of the expansion of missions throughout the Catholic Church, caused not only by the phenomenon of colonialism but also by a true missionary spirit that existed in the numerous lay associations and religious institutes founded at that time for missions in faraway territories, such as Africa, Asia, and Oceania. The Society of Mary, which considers itself a missionary congregation, naturally participated in this spirit of enthusiasm for missions that enlivened the entire Catholic Church in the last third of the nineteenth century.
Translator’s
Note.................................................................................... xiii
Prologue
.................................................................................................xv
1. The Maturity of the Society of Mary....................................................1
1. Catholicism and Modern Society........................................................2
a) From Rejection to Toleration ........................................................2
b) Leo XIII and the Recovery of the Prestige of the Church ............7
c) Neo-Catholicism and Ecclesiastical Cohesion............................10
d) The School Question...................................................................13
2. Father Joseph Simler, Second Founder .............................................18
a) Death of Father Chevaux and General Chapter of 1876.............21
b) Father Joseph Simler, Elected Fourth Superior General .............28
c) Great Intellectual, Moral, and Religious Characteristics ............34
d) Weighty Responsibilities in the General Administration ............42
e) Maturity of the Society of Mary .................................................49
f) Problems and Challenges During the
First Generalate (1876-86) ..........................................................54
3. Third Republic of France and the School .........................................67
a) Political and Social Situation in France ......................................68
b) School in the Political Project of the Republic ...........................72
c) Secularizing Educational Laws...................................................78
d) Improvement of the French Educational
System and of the Marianist Method ........................................100
4. The Constitutions of Father Simler .................................................107
a) Canonical Status of the Congregational Movement .................108
b) Definitive Constitutions in the Maturity
of the Society of Mary ..............................................................112
c) Joseph Simler, Man of Modern Thought ..................................117
d) General Chapter of 1881 ...........................................................125
e) Animadversions of 1882 ...........................................................140
f) Constitutions Are Approved Ad Septennium.............................147
2. Great International Expansion .........................................................157
1. Marianist Works in Switzerland......................................................157
a) Tensions and Understanding Between the
Church and Liberals in Power...................................................158
b) Legal Recognition of the Society of Mary
and State of Its Schools in 1876................................................159
c) Notable Expansion in the Canton of Valais ..............................166
2. Moderate Growth in Austria and Germany.....................................171
a) Economic and Social Changes in the
Austro-Hungarian Empire.........................................................172
b) Conservative Liberalism and Legislation
Favoring the Church in Austria.................................................173
c) Moderate Growth of the Society in Austria ..............................174
d) Called to Vienna by the Catholic Educational Association.......177
e) Kulturkampf and the Marienschule (Mainz) .............................179
3. Vitality of the Province of America ................................................183
a) Great Expansion of Catholicism: The American Way ..............185
b) Condemnation of Americanism ................................................190
c) School Question ........................................................................195
d) Marianists in Winnipeg (Canada), Hawaiian Islands, and California
..................................................................................196
e) Adaptation of Marianist Educational Work
to American Society ..................................................................207
f) Marianist Institutions and Life in the United States .................214
4. Foundations in the Colonial Territory of North Africa ...................223
a) Tripoli: School of Sainte Marie (1881).....................................225
b) Sfax: École Sainte Marie (1882)...............................................233
c) Tunis: French Classes at Collège
Saint Charles (1883-89) ............................................................237
d) Sousse: École Saint Charles (1885) ..........................................238
e) Implantation in North Africa at the End
of the First Generalate Term .....................................................241
f) Development of the Schools in the Protectorate of Tunis.........244
5. Marianists Settle in Belgium...........................................................249
a) Catholics in Public Life ............................................................250
b) Freedom of Education and Favorable Legislation ....................252
c) Marianist Schools Take Root ....................................................256
6. Overview of First Term as General: 1876-86 .................................261
a) Material Recovery: Men and Works .........................................262
b) Spiritual Renewal: Charismatic Identity and Constitutions......268
c) Reelection of Simler and the Society’s Unity Around the Superior General
.......................................................................272
3. International Congregation of Pontifical Rank...............................281
1. Need and Desire for Mission ..........................................................283
a) Lay Republic .............................................................................284
b) Great Foundations .....................................................................299
2. Foundations in Spain.......................................................................303
a) First Attempts at a Foundation Before Father Simler ...............303
b) Beginnings in a Favorable Historical Situation ........................306
c) Colegio Católico Santa María, San Sebastián, 1887 ................310
d) Colegio San Juan Bautista, Jerez de la Frontera, 1888 .............316
e) House of Formation in Vitoria (1889) and
Colegio Santa María (1890)......................................................321
f) Colegio San Felipe Neri in Cádiz (1892)
and Legal Recognition of the Society (1893) ...........................325
g) Plan for Initial Formation..........................................................332
h) New Province of Spain, 1895 ...................................................335
3. Foundation in Japan ........................................................................345
a) Political and Economic Modernization of the Country ............346
b) School as an Agent of Political Unity
and Socioeconomic Development.............................................348
c) Christianity in Japan .................................................................352
d) Sending a Marianist Community ..............................................356
e) Gyosei (Morning Star) School in Tokyo (1888) .......................362
f) Expansion to Nagasaki: Star of the Sea School (1892) ............366
g) Osaka: Bright Morning Star School (1898) ..............................369
h) Saint Joseph’s School in Yokohama (1901) ..............................372
i) Stabilizing the Marianist Presence in Japan..............................374
4. Society of Mary in Italy ..................................................................376
a) Need for a Marianist House in Rome .......................................376
b) Collegio Santa Maria in Rome..................................................384
c) Need for an Italian Postulate: Istituto Santa
Maria in Pallanza (1901) ..........................................................395
5. New Works in Mission Territories ..................................................403
a) Aleppo, Syria ............................................................................403
b) Bizerte: École Saint Joseph.......................................................405
6. Approbation of the Constitutions ....................................................407
a) Memoria of Father Lehmann and
Notice historique of Father Simler............................................409
b) Father Simler’s Journey to Rome..............................................420
c) General Chapter of 1891 and Approbation
of the Constitutions ...................................................................425
d) Marianist Charism and Institution
in the Constitutions of 1891 ......................................................434
4. Years of Splendor ...............................................................................447
1. Peace and Prosperity .......................................................................447
a) Overcoming the Laws that Secularized Education ...................449
b) Splendor Before the Crisis of the
Congregational Movement in France........................................454
c) Collège Stanislas or the Apogee of Educational Works............463
d) Increase in Works and Vocation Ministry .................................477
2. Institutionalization of the Society of Mary .....................................483
a) Marianist Constitutions, Life, and Mission...............................483
b) Institutional Organization of the Society of Mary ....................487
c) Spreading Lay Associations Among Students ..........................521
d) “The Crypt” of Stanislas and Creation of Le Sillon ..................536
e) Reestablishment of Relations with
the Daughters of Mary Immaculate ..........................................547
3. Spiritual Guide and Rules of Life ...................................................550
a) Pastoral Focus of Leo XIII........................................................550
b) To Form in Evangelical Perfection ...........................................553
c) Extensive Spiritual Doctrine .....................................................556
d) Regulations and Directories ......................................................561
4. Expansion of Marianist Teaching in Austria and Germany ............565
a) Industrial Development of Austria and Good
Church-State Relations .............................................................565
b) Expansion in the Diocese of Mainz ..........................................577
5. Radical Republic and Suppression
of Teaching Congregations in France...................................................581
1. Radical Republic and Suppression of Congregations .....................582
a) Antagonism and Efforts at Conciliation....................................583
b) Law of Associations of July 1, 1901 .........................................593
c) Financial-Legal and Canonical-Spiritual Precautions ..............607
d) Suppression of Congregations ..................................................621
2. Reorganization of French Marianists ..............................................635
a) Schools, Houses of Formation, and General
Administration in Belgium .......................................................636
b) Houses of Formation and Marianist Seminary in Fribourg ......654
c) Candidates and Elderly from the Midi in Spain........................660
d) Situation of Religious and Works in France .............................666
e) Meeting at Fayt in April 1904 ...................................................680
f) Death of Father Simler..............................................................686
3. Persecution and Mission .................................................................690
a) China: Mission Schools at Yen-Tschu-Fu (1903-09) ................691
b) Mexico: Durango (1904) and Hermosillo (1905) .....................700
Tables.......................................................................................................711
Bibliography...............................................................................721
Translator’s
Note.................................................................................... xiii
Prologue
.................................................................................................xv
1. The Maturity of the Society of Mary....................................................1
1. Catholicism and Modern Society........................................................2
a) From Rejection to Toleration ........................................................2
b) Leo XIII and the Recovery of the Prestige of the Church ............7
c) Neo-Catholicism and Ecclesiastical Cohesion............................10
d) The School Question...................................................................13
2. Father Joseph Simler, Second Founder .............................................18
a) Death of Father Chevaux and General Chapter of 1876.............21
b) Father Joseph Simler, Elected Fourth Superior General .............28
c) Great Intellectual, Moral, and Religious Characteristics ............34
d) Weighty Responsibilities in the General Administration ............42
e) Maturity of the Society of Mary .................................................49
f) Problems and Challenges During the
First Generalate (1876-86) ..........................................................54
3. Third Republic of France and the School .........................................67
a) Political and Social Situation in France ......................................68
b) School in the Political Project of the Republic ...........................72
c) Secularizing Educational Laws...................................................78
d) Improvement of the French Educational
System and of the Marianist Method ........................................100
4. The Constitutions of Father Simler .................................................107
a) Canonical Status of the Congregational Movement .................108
b) Definitive Constitutions in the Maturity
of the Society of Mary ..............................................................112
c) Joseph Simler, Man of Modern Thought ..................................117
d) General Chapter of 1881 ...........................................................125
e) Animadversions of 1882 ...........................................................140
f) Constitutions Are Approved Ad Septennium.............................147
2. Great International Expansion .........................................................157
1. Marianist Works in Switzerland......................................................157
a) Tensions and Understanding Between the
Church and Liberals in Power...................................................158
b) Legal Recognition of the Society of Mary
and State of Its Schools in 1876................................................159
c) Notable Expansion in the Canton of Valais ..............................166
2. Moderate Growth in Austria and Germany.....................................171
a) Economic and Social Changes in the
Austro-Hungarian Empire.........................................................172
b) Conservative Liberalism and Legislation
Favoring the Church in Austria.................................................173
c) Moderate Growth of the Society in Austria ..............................174
d) Called to Vienna by the Catholic Educational Association.......177
e) Kulturkampf and the Marienschule (Mainz) .............................179
3. Vitality of the Province of America ................................................183
a) Great Expansion of Catholicism: The American Way ..............185
b) Condemnation of Americanism ................................................190
c) School Question ........................................................................195
d) Marianists in Winnipeg (Canada), Hawaiian Islands, and California
..................................................................................196
e) Adaptation of Marianist Educational Work
to American Society ..................................................................207
f) Marianist Institutions and Life in the United States .................214
4. Foundations in the Colonial Territory of North Africa ...................223
a) Tripoli: School of Sainte Marie (1881).....................................225
b) Sfax: École Sainte Marie (1882)...............................................233
c) Tunis: French Classes at Collège
Saint Charles (1883-89) ............................................................237
d) Sousse: École Saint Charles (1885) ..........................................238
e) Implantation in North Africa at the End
of the First Generalate Term .....................................................241
f) Development of the Schools in the Protectorate of Tunis.........244
5. Marianists Settle in Belgium...........................................................249
a) Catholics in Public Life ............................................................250
b) Freedom of Education and Favorable Legislation ....................252
c) Marianist Schools Take Root ....................................................256
6. Overview of First Term as General: 1876-86 .................................261
a) Material Recovery: Men and Works .........................................262
b) Spiritual Renewal: Charismatic Identity and Constitutions......268
c) Reelection of Simler and the Society’s Unity Around the Superior General
.......................................................................272
3. International Congregation of Pontifical Rank...............................281
1. Need and Desire for Mission ..........................................................283
a) Lay Republic .............................................................................284
b) Great Foundations .....................................................................299
2. Foundations in Spain.......................................................................303
a) First Attempts at a Foundation Before Father Simler ...............303
b) Beginnings in a Favorable Historical Situation ........................306
c) Colegio Católico Santa María, San Sebastián, 1887 ................310
d) Colegio San Juan Bautista, Jerez de la Frontera, 1888 .............316
e) House of Formation in Vitoria (1889) and
Colegio Santa María (1890)......................................................321
f) Colegio San Felipe Neri in Cádiz (1892)
and Legal Recognition of the Society (1893) ...........................325
g) Plan for Initial Formation..........................................................332
h) New Province of Spain, 1895 ...................................................335
3. Foundation in Japan ........................................................................345
a) Political and Economic Modernization of the Country ............346
b) School as an Agent of Political Unity
and Socioeconomic Development.............................................348
c) Christianity in Japan .................................................................352
d) Sending a Marianist Community ..............................................356
e) Gyosei (Morning Star) School in Tokyo (1888) .......................362
f) Expansion to Nagasaki: Star of the Sea School (1892) ............366
g) Osaka: Bright Morning Star School (1898) ..............................369
h) Saint Joseph’s School in Yokohama (1901) ..............................372
i) Stabilizing the Marianist Presence in Japan..............................374
4. Society of Mary in Italy ..................................................................376
a) Need for a Marianist House in Rome .......................................376
b) Collegio Santa Maria in Rome..................................................384
c) Need for an Italian Postulate: Istituto Santa
Maria in Pallanza (1901) ..........................................................395
5. New Works in Mission Territories ..................................................403
a) Aleppo, Syria ............................................................................403
b) Bizerte: École Saint Joseph.......................................................405
6. Approbation of the Constitutions ....................................................407
a) Memoria of Father Lehmann and
Notice historique of Father Simler............................................409
b) Father Simler’s Journey to Rome..............................................420
c) General Chapter of 1891 and Approbation
of the Constitutions ...................................................................425
d) Marianist Charism and Institution
in the Constitutions of 1891 ......................................................434
4. Years of Splendor ...............................................................................447
1. Peace and Prosperity .......................................................................447
a) Overcoming the Laws that Secularized Education ...................449
b) Splendor Before the Crisis of the
Congregational Movement in France........................................454
c) Collège Stanislas or the Apogee of Educational Works............463
d) Increase in Works and Vocation Ministry .................................477
2. Institutionalization of the Society of Mary .....................................483
a) Marianist Constitutions, Life, and Mission...............................483
b) Institutional Organization of the Society of Mary ....................487
c) Spreading Lay Associations Among Students ..........................521
d) “The Crypt” of Stanislas and Creation of Le Sillon ..................536
e) Reestablishment of Relations with
the Daughters of Mary Immaculate ..........................................547
3. Spiritual Guide and Rules of Life ...................................................550
a) Pastoral Focus of Leo XIII........................................................550
b) To Form in Evangelical Perfection ...........................................553
c) Extensive Spiritual Doctrine .....................................................556
d) Regulations and Directories ......................................................561
4. Expansion of Marianist Teaching in Austria and Germany ............565
a) Industrial Development of Austria and Good
Church-State Relations .............................................................565
b) Expansion in the Diocese of Mainz ..........................................577
5. Radical Republic and Suppression
of Teaching Congregations in France...................................................581
1. Radical Republic and Suppression of Congregations .....................582
a) Antagonism and Efforts at Conciliation....................................583
b) Law of Associations of July 1, 1901 .........................................593
c) Financial-Legal and Canonical-Spiritual Precautions ..............607
d) Suppression of Congregations ..................................................621
2. Reorganization of French Marianists ..............................................635
a) Schools, Houses of Formation, and General
Administration in Belgium .......................................................636
b) Houses of Formation and Marianist Seminary in Fribourg ......654
c) Candidates and Elderly from the Midi in Spain........................660
d) Situation of Religious and Works in France .............................666
e) Meeting at Fayt in April 1904 ...................................................680
f) Death of Father Simler..............................................................686
3. Persecution and Mission .................................................................690
a) China: Mission Schools at Yen-Tschu-Fu (1903-09) ................691
b) Mexico: Durango (1904) and Hermosillo (1905) .....................700
Tables.......................................................................................................711
Bibliography...............................................................................721
